The paucity of historical events conspires against effective learning.
Decision processes in organizations lead to overly optimistic expectations and are vulnerable to disappointment with results.
Organizations repeat decisions made previously. They focus on critical incidents.
Optimistic errors in anticipation make the short run lessons of experience more reinforcing than the long-run lessons. The inconsistency in learning is reduced by the tendency for experience to be delayed and ambiguous.
What makes an event critical?
Place in the course of history, place in the development of belief, metaphorical power.
Organizations expand their comprehension of history by making experience richer, by considering multiple interpretations of experience, by using experience to discover and modify their preferences and by simulating near-events and hypothetical histories.
Common criteria include reliability and validity. Organizational learning involves balancing stable, shared knowledge with novel ideas.
Ways organizations increase the validity of learning from history:
Efforts to experience history more richly
Efforts to interpret the experience in more ways
Efforts to experience more of the events that did not happen
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